XIV Международный конкурс научно-исследовательских и творческих работ учащихся
Старт в науке
Изменения английского языка
Автор работы награжден дипломом победителя II степени
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Introduction
In the use of language, every one chooses his words from that common stock which he has learned, and applies them in practice according to his own habits and notions. If the style of different writers of the same age is various, much greater is the variety which appears in the productions of different ages. Hence the date of a book may often be very plausibly conjectured from the peculiarities of its style. As to what is best in itself, or best adapted to the subject in hand, every writer must endeavour to become his own judge. He who, in any sort of composition, would write with a master's hand, must first apply himself to books with a scholar's diligence. He must think it worth his while to inform himself, that he may be critical. Desiring to give the student all the advantage, entertainment, and satisfaction, that can be expected from a work of this kind, I shall subjoin a few brief specimens in illustration of what has been said in the foregoing chapter. The order of time will be followed inversely; and, as Saxon characters are not very easily obtained, or very apt to be read, the Roman letters will be employed for the few examples to which the others would be more appropriate. But there are some peculiarities of ancient usage in English, which, for the information of the young reader, it is proper in the first place to explain.
The goal of the work: to study the influence of English culture and history on the English language.
We have set the following tasks:
1) study the literature on the topic
2) to study the stages of development of the English language
3) study the influence of foreign cultures
We put forward the following hypothesis: Numerous conquests of Britain and contacts with different cultures brought a new vocabulary to the language and gave an impetus to the formation of the modern English language.
The object of research: the English language
Subject of research: the influence of other languages on the English language.
Research methods:
1) collection and processing of information
2) comparison and analysis
Chapter 1. The history of the development of the English language
We do not have any special criteria by which we can divide the history of the development of the English language into periods at the moment. Of the periodizations that we have, the most common one is the periodization proposed by the scientist G. Sweet. According to Sweet, the history of the English language should be divided into three periods: Old English, Middle English ( and New English (Modern English). New English itself is divided into Early Modern English and Late Modern English.
Britain has been inhabited by human since ancient times. As far as we can tell from the preserved material monuments, the island was inhabited by people in the III millennium BC. In the VIII century BC, the Gaels appeared on the island. Gaels was one of the numerous Celtic tribes that inhabited the vast expanses of central and western Europe at that time. Gaelic still exists in some areas of Ireland and Scotland. In the V century BC, Brits invaded the territory of island. They were more civilised than the Gaels and subsequently pushed them back. According to one version, the name of the island “Britain” came from the name of this tribe. In 43, four Roman legions landed on the island. A long and bloody campaign to capture Britain has begun. After a long and stubborn resistance and several rebellions, the Romans managed to conquer Britain and keep it under control for more than three centuries [3] The Romans left the island only in 407, shortly before the collapse of the Holy Roman Empire. During this period, the British tribes borrowed some Latin words related to trade and new technologies.
Further, in the II century BC, Celtic tribes came to the island and settled among the Britons. English words derived from Celtic languages include such words as hog (pig), javelin (dart), pilbroach (war song), whiskey (vodka), clan (clan).
1.1 The Old English Period
The beginning of the Old English period is considered to be 450 AD, when ancient Germanic tribes - Angles, Saxons, Jutes and Frisians invaded Britain. All of them spoke related dialects close to each other. Therefore, it is not surprising that at the beginning of its development, the Old English language, or as it is also called Anglo-Saxon, was very similar to other Germanic languages. The words in it were inclined in five cases: nominative, accusative, genitive, dative and creative. Not only nouns were inclined, but also other parts of speech. Also, nouns were inclined by gender. For example, the word "sunne" - the sun was feminine, and the word “mona” - the moon - masculine. In modern English, the gender category has been preserved for only a few words, for example: waiter - waitress. The stress in Old English usually fell on the first syllable of the root. The main way of word formation was affixation - adding a suffix to the base of a word. In Old English, the suffix -ere- was widely distributed [2]. For example: baecere - baker, fiscere - fisherman, writere - scribe. Old English was a synthetic language, which means that the relationship between words in a sentence was expressed by changing the form of words using affixation, suppletevism, internal inflection, stress.
It is also worth mentioning that the period of the Old English language fell on the period of the spread of Christianity. In Britain, it has been known since the II century AD, when the Romans lived on the island. In 592, Roman missionaries led by St. Augustine landed on the coast of Britain. As a result of their preaching most Anglo-Saxons were baptized. Along with Christianity, the Romans brought new words, mainly related to religion and the church. According to scientists, at that time about 600 Latin words came to Old English, for example - altar, deacon, martyr, minister, priest, as well as many other household words.
Old English had five dialects: Northumbrian, Mercian, Wesleyan, Kentish and East Anglian dialects. Despite the fact that each dialect had many specific features, they all have a number of common features, thanks to which we can consider the Old English language as a whole language (Englics), which served as a means of communication for the new emerging English nationality [2].
At the end of the VIII century. raids on England by Scandinavian Vikings began. Vikings were free warriors, mostly Danes, they gathered in squads and went across the sea, raiding the coasts of various countries. At first, the east coast of England suffered from their raids, but already in the IX the Scandinavians became stronger and turned into a serious threat. Only in 876, after the Battle of Wedmore, which ended without any success on either side, King Alfred managed to conclude a peace with them, according to which a part of the north-eastern coast of England was given to the Scandinavians. This territory was named "Danelagh" (Danelagh).
The Old Norse language had a significant impact on English.During this period English begins its journey from a synthetic language to an analytical one. Scandinavian loanwords include such words as: bag, birth, cake, egg, gate , kid , leg, loan, score, seat, skill, skirt, sky, window, awkward, happy, ill, low, ugly, weak, wrong, cut, hit, happen, lift(lift), raise(increase), scare(scare), take(take), want(want). Many place names in eastern and northern England are also of Scandinavian origin.Also, some words from Scandinavian have been preserved in English as synonyms:
Ill - evil
sky - heaven
die - starve
want - wish
happy – merry
Example:
Fæder ure, þu þe eart on heofonum;
Si þin nama gehalgod,
to becume þin rice,
gewurþe ðin willa,
on eorðan swa swa on heofonum.
Urne gedæghwamlican hlaf syle us todæg,
and forgyf us ure gyltas,
swa swa we forgyfað urum gyltendum,
and ne gelæd þu us on costnunge,
ac alys us of yfele, soþlice.
1.2 Middle English period
The event that began the transition from Old English to Middle English is considered to be the Norman Conquest of 1066 - the military invasion of England by Duke William the Conqueror of Normandy.
In September 1066, the Norwegian army landed in northern England, defeated the combined forces of the Anglo-Saxon Earls at the Battle of Fulford and occupied York. Upon learning of this, the English king Harold, who was in the south of England, expecting the invasion of William, marched with an army to the north and defeated the Norwegians in the bloody battle of Stamford Bridge. After waiting for favorable weather, William himself landed in England. In the battle near Hastings on October 14, the Normans won, Harold and his brothers died. William became the new ruler of England. The Norman Conquest was not only a great event in the history of England, but also an important event in the history of the language [2].
The Normans spoke Old French, or rather one of its dialects, with some admixture of Germanic languages. This language is usually called Anglo-Norman or Norman French. After William came to power, this language became the language of the King and the nobility for more than 300 years. Norman French eventually mixed with Old English. A mixture of these languages is commonly called Middle English.
Old French had a huge impact on the English language. During the 300 years of Norman rule in England, a huge number of words were borrowed from Old French, which are used in modern English to this day. These are words related to power (state(government), governor (ruler), Verkhovna Rada (parliament)authority (authority), obedience (obedience), vassal(vassal)), with war (armed forces(army), armor(armor), archer(archer), battle, soldier, peace, enemy), with law (court, judge, arrest, accuse, justice, sentense, appeal, plaintiff, crime, damage, sentence, prison), with religion (archangel, bible, baptism, sacrifices, charity, clergy, divine, miracle, paradise, passion, prayers, religion, rules, holy, to tempt,) as well as many other words (Crown, Castle, servants, charity, money, jewelry, beauty, grass, biscuit, prince, industry, face, hour, ink, joy, letter, payment, table, mountain) and many other words. From Old French to English came the suffixes - capable - (accessible, reliable), - ence- (violence, resistance), - ment- (purpose, development), - age - (marriage, village), - ess- (actress, hostess) - ous (curious, dangerous).
It is also important to note that during that time, the period of domination of three languages began: French - for the aristocracy and the judicial system, Latin - for science and medicine, Anglo-Saxon - for the common people [3]. As a result of the interaction of these languages, the process of formation of the modern English language in the form in which we know it began. Thanks to mixing, the vocabulary has doubled.
In the vocabulary there was a splitting into high (from French) and low (from German) variants of the language. However, despite not all the external factors affecting English, its basis still remains Anglo-Saxon.
In the 14th century, English became the language of education and law, and in 1474 the first book in English appeared. It was William Caxton's translation of R. Lefebvre's "A Collection of Stories about Troy". Thanks to Caxton's activity, a lot of English words have gained completeness and integrity.
In the period from the XII to the XIV centuries, English was a number of local dialects with a common core [4]. The London dialect that has developed over several centuries, which will later become an example of the English literary language.
Example text in Middle English:
Oure fadir that art in heuenes,
Halewid be thi name
Thi kyngdoom come to;
Be thi wille don, in erthe as in heuenes
Yyue to vs this dai oure breed ouer othir substaunce,
And foryyue to vs oure dettis,
as we foryyuen to oure dettouris;
And lede vs not in to temptacioun,
but delyuere vs fro yuel.
1.3 New English Period
The New English period begins around 1550. Scientists divide this period into early and late.
At that time, there was no literary norm or any canons in the English language, as outstanding writers and scientists wrote their works in the dialect they spoke themselves, inventing new words and expressions. Speaking of them, it is impossible not to mention the greatest poet and playwright William Shakespeare. Shakespeare introduced about one and a half thousand new lexical units into the English language.
The vocabulary of the English language in the New English period underwent large-scale changes: globalization, progress in science and technology, the development of capitalism, the formation of a single world market, all this had a strong impact on vocabulary [2].
During the Renaissance, mass translations from Latin began. New English includes new verbs borrowed from Latin: to accumulate, to decorate, to attribute, to distribute, to connect, to protect, to expel, to repel, to contend, to induce, to reduce.
In the 16th and 17th centuries, England established strong industrial and trade ties with the Netherlands, which led to the replenishment of the English language with a large number of Dutch terms related to shipbuilding and navigation (cruise, yacht, dock, reef, buoy) and weaving (stripe, spool, rock).
Since the 16th century, many Italian words from the field of art and culture and art have been transferred to English. This includes musical terms (opera, sonata, trio, adagio, basso, allegro), vocabulary, from the field of fine arts and literature (studio, fresco, cameo, intaglio; stanza, canto). Words denoting commercial and political concepts (bank, fascism) are being transferred to English. The English also borrow words such as pasta, mafia, paparazzi.
In 19th century the formation of the key grammatical, phonetic and stylistic norms of the modern English language is being completed.
Example text in New English:
Our Father, who art in heaven
hallowed be thy Name,
thy kingdom come,
thy will be done,
on earth as it is in heaven.
Give us this day our daily bread
And forgive us our trespasses,
as we forgive those
who trespass against us.
And lead us not into temptation,
but deliver us from evil.
Conclusion
Language is always changing, evolving, and adapting to the needs of its users.We get new words from many different places. Finally, the sounds of a language change over time, too. About 500 years ago English began to undergo a major change in the way its vowels were pronounced.
Literature
1. А.И. Смирницкий. Древнеанглийский язык
2. Ильиш Б.А. История английского языка
3. Аракин В. Д. История Английского языка: учебное пособие
4. Расторгуева Т.А. История английского языка. – М., 2003.
5. Шапошникова И.В. История английского языка
6. Чахоян Л.П., Иванова И.П., Беляева Т.М. История английского языка. Учебник. Хрестоматия. Словарь
7.сайт englishforcing.ru
8. канал с лекциями https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCJSqXOkySQgm0dYjccicA1Q
9. сайт Изучение английского языка онлайн