XXIV Международный конкурс научно-исследовательских и творческих работ учащихся
Старт в науке
Черно-белые фотографии
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The appearance of the firstcameracoincidedwith the invention of "heliography" by JosephNicephoreNiepcein1826[2][3]. The deviceforrecordingimageson the surface of asphaltvarnishwas a variant of the pinholecamera, which was previouslyactivelyused by artiststodrawfromnature.Furtherdevelopment of the technology is associatedwith the invention of the daguerreotype byJacquesLouisDaguerre. Daguerreotype quicklybecamewidespreadas a toolforportraiture,becomingcommerciallyprofitable. The resultwas the development of newdevicesforphotography, the mostoriginalofwhichin1840wasAlexanderWalcott's camerawith a concavemirrorinstead of a lens[4].Nolessrevolutionarywas the all-metalGanzmetallkameraof the GermancompanyFochtlander,equipped with a high-power Petzvallens[5][6]. A moderncopy of the Fochtlander daguerreotypecamerafrom1841 The mostrapiddevelopmentof the camera industry beganafter the discovery of the wetcollodionprocess, which replaced the inconvenientandexpensivedaguerreotypeand calotype[7]. The photographic equipment forthistechnologyretained the device of the direct-sightcamera,butwasimproved by obtaining a focusingfurand a high-power portraitlens. The introduction of drygelatin-silver photographic plates withhighphotosensitivity made it possibletoshootwithinstantshutter speeds, which required a specialmechanismtoadjust the duration of exposure to light.Such a devicewas a photo shutter, the firstdesigns of which
appearedin1853[8]. The invention by OttomarAnschutz of a high-speedcurtain—slitshutterledto the appearance of reportercameras-presscameras,launchedintomassproductionbyGoerzin1888[9]. The launch of the productionof gelatin-silver photo paperssuitableforprojectionprinting,aswell as the increase in the resolutionof photographic emulsions, launched the process of miniaturization of photographic equipment and the emergence of itsnewportablevarieties,suchasfoldingandtravelcameras. A technologicalbreakthrough was madein1888 by GeorgeEastman, who released the firstKodakboxcameracharged with rolledphotographic film on a flexiblecelluloidsubstrate[10][11]. The inventionmarked the beginning of amateurphotography,saving the photographerfrom having todevelopphotographic materials andprintpictures.Allthis was donebyEastman's company,where a camerawith the capturedfilm was sentbymail[12].The amateur photographer, after paying$10,received a rechargedcamera,ready-made negativesandcontactprintsfromthem[13][14][15].Shootingwithout a tripodprovedimpossiblewithdirectsight,whichledto the appearance of a viewfinder for allcompactcameras.Simultaneouslywithcompact cameras, numerouscamerasforcovertshootingappeared,including those builtintoclothingitems:ties,hatsandhandbags[16]. The developmentin the secondhalf of the 19thcentury of colorphotographytechnologiesbasedonMaxwell's three-colortheory of color perceptionledto the proliferation of specializeddevices that allow color separation in variousways.Thesimplestsolutionwastoshootthreecolor-separated imageson a common
photographic plate throughthreelensescovered with light filters of primarycolors[17].However, the distancebetweentheminevitablyledtoparallaxand,as a result,coloredcontours in theimage of closeobjects.Camerasturned out to be moreadvanced
The developmentin the secondhalf of the 19thcentury of colorphotographytechnologiesbasedonMaxwell's three-colortheory of color perceptionledto the proliferation of specializeddevices that allow color separation in variousways.Thesimplestsolutionwastoshootthreecolor-separated imageson a commonphotographic plate throughthreelensescovered with light filters of primarycolors[17].However, the distancebetweentheminevitablyledtoparallaxand,as a result,coloredcontours in theimage of closeobjects.Cameraswithsequentialshootingthroughonelenson an elongatedphotographic plate withautomatic step-by-stepdisplacementturned out to be moreadvanced. The mostfamous are suchcamerasdesigned by AdolfMitet,oneofwhich was used by SergeiProkudin-Gorsky[18].Cameraswith a slidingcassetteforthreeexposures were suitableonlyforshootingstationaryobjectsandlandscapesdue to theinevitabletimeparallax. Three-platecameraswithinternal color separation, which allowedshootingmovingobjectsthrough a commonlensinoneexposure, weredeprived of alldisadvantages[19]. The inventionof the autochromic processand the subsequentproliferation of multilayerphotographic materials made it possible to abandoncomplexphotographic equipment,butneverthelesscameraswithinternal color separationusingtranslucentmirrors were usedin the publishingbusinessuntil
the mid-1950s[20].Oneof the keyrolesin the improvement of photographic equipment was played by the formation of aerial photography, which receivedrapiddevelopmentafter the FirstWorldWar[21].Highflightspeedsrequiredshortexposures,forcing them to be compensated by thehighaperture of the lenses.At the same time, the inadmissibility of geometricdistortions,especiallyinphotogrammetry,forced the development of orthoscopicopticswithminimaldistortion.Manydesignsof photo locks andlenses,familiarinmodernphotographic equipment,weredevelopedspecificallyforaerial cameras,onlylaterfindingapplicationingeneral-purposecameras.Thesameapplies to auxiliarymechanisms: for example,automatedcamerarecharging was firstusedspecificallyforaerial photography.
1.1
The story of the creator
JosephNicephoreNiepce was born on March7, 1765
JosephNicephoreNiepceis a Frenchinventor,bestknownas the creator of heliographyandoneof the inventors of photography.NicephoreNiepce was borninChalons-sur-SaoneinBurgundyinto an aristocratic,wealthyfamily.Hisfatherwas an advisor to LouisXV, and his mother, ClaudeBarot, was the daughter of the famouslawyer,AntoineBarot.In the Template, the familyhad a lot of property.Joseph
studiedpublicspeakingat the colleges of Chalons,TroyesandAngersfrom1780to1788.He left the army during thefirstperiod of the FrenchRevolution.WithcomingNapoleonNiepcereturned to thearmyandparticipatedinmilitaryoperationsinSardiniaandItaly.Due to poorhealth, he retiredandwas a governmentofficialinNice for severalyears,wherehemarriedAgnesRameru.Butafter6years, hereturnedto his hometowntohismotherandbrothers.Herehebegan to dohisresearchwithhisolderbrotherClaude. The firstinventionwasthe pyreolophore, an internalcombustionenginewithwhich it was possibletomove a boatalong the Seine.In1816, Niepcebeganworkingonobtaining a photographicimage.Initially, silversalt was used,which turns blackwhen in contactwithdaylight.Niepce was able to get a negative,butwhen the silversalt was releasedfrom the camera, the wholepicture turned black.In the future, Niepcetried to use a copperorlimestoneplatecoated with a thinlayer of bitumen. For the first time, JosephNiepcereceived a fixedimagearound1822—"A settable",which,however, has notreachedus.Theoldestknownphotographis"Viewfrom the windowinLeGras" from 1826, the exposition of whichlastedabout8hours.In1829, the 64-year-oldNiepcewasill.HeandhisolderbrotherClaudespentalltheirinheritedmoneyonvariousinventions,butnone of them madethemrich.Heliographybecamehismainoccupation,andhegaveitallhisstrength.JosephNiepcediedin1833.Joseph's son,IsidoreNiepce,continued the work of
his fatheranduncle,becoming a partner of LouisDaguerre.
JosephNicephoreNiepce
1.2
How the firstcameraworks
In1861, T.Sattoncreated the firstSLRcamera.Itwasalargeboxwith a lid,standingon a tripod.Thanks to the lid, the lightcouldnotgetinside,but it was possibletoobservethroughit. It was possible to catch the focususing a lenson the glass, and an image was formedonitby means of mirrors.In1883, GeorgeEastmanreplaced the glassplates with photographic film. A flexiblefilmwith a photosensitiveemulsion was rolled up,allowing you to takeseveralpictureswithoutrecharging the camera.Fiveyears later, heinvented the firstlightweightKodakcamera.Subsequently, the namebecame the name of a futurelargecompany,andphotographyconquered the wholeworld
Chapter 2
Filmdevelopment
Filmphotography is becominganincreasinglypopularhobbyeveryyear— as evidenced by the volume of sales of photographic film —butalso,unfortunately,moreexpensive.
Showing the footage at home is easierand more interestingthan it seems—no more difficultthan making coffeeormakingpasta.Andit's also tentimescheaperthanin a darkroom.FilmphotographerSergeyKoroltold the "BigCity"how to organize the development of the houseandwhatit would take.author: Sergei the KingHow it allworks A photographic film is a strip of transparentplasticonwhich an emulsion is applied.Theemulsioncontainstinycrystals of silverhalides that are sensitivetolight(analogpixels).Whenlighthitsthecrystals,theychange(conditionally"getcharged"):themorelightfalls,themorecrystalschange.During the development, the film is placedin a developersolution. The substancescontainedin the developerbindto the crystalsin the film,"blackening"them.Whatthelighthitsturnsblack(thegreater the "charge" of the crystals,theblacker).Therefore, the imageon the filmisinverted,negative.Then the film is washedandplacedin a fixingsolution, a fixer. The fixerisjust a weakacid that washes away "uncharged"crystalsthat have not been exposed to light.After that, the film is washedanddried.Everything is ready!What will be required THE TANK A special light-tighttankinwhich a film is placedon a spiral. The oldgrandfather's will do,butIwouldadvise you to buy a new one (for example,fromJOBOorAP)—it will definitelynot"shine",and it is more pleasant to fill the filmintoit.
APMINICOMPACTUNIVERSALTANKFORDEVELOPINGPHOTOGRAPHIC FILMS, SINGLE-CHIRAL2900rublesDEVELOPERTostart, I recommendusing a liquiddeveloperRodinalor a ready-made
DEVELOPERD-76(SFL)READY,1LITER,FORDEVELOPINGSIX TO EIGHTNEGATIVEB/WPHOTOGRAPHIC FILMS 380rubles THE FIXER It is alsobetter to useaready-made fixer.Tobegin with, "sour" is bettersuited — it is the fastestand most reliable way to fixit.
FC-2FIXER(SFL)READY,1LITER,FORPROCESSINGB/WPHOTOGRAPHIC MATERIALS 380rublesDISTILLATEAfterdevelopingandrinsing the film, it is useful to soak it indistilledwaterfor a minute or two so that there are nocharacteristicstainson the surface.Thesestainsoccurdue to thefactthatrunningwatercontainslimeandsalts,whichremainon the filmafterdrying. LITTLE THINGSWe will alsoneed a thermometerthatcan be loweredinto the
waterandwhichgives an accuracy of plus or minusonedegree.Andkitchenscaleswith an accuracyofonegram.
HoweverythingworksPREPARING THE COILBeforecharging the filminto the tank, it is important to removethe"tongue" of the film from it.Thiscan be donewithaspecialextractor.
FILMEXTRACTOR(FILMPICKER)APPLET1990rubles
If there is noextractor, the filmcoilcansimply be broken with your handsoropenedwithscissors—thisshould be done exclusivelyin the dark.CHARGING THE FILM The filmin the spiral of the tank is alsochargedincompletedarkness. The easiest way to dothis is in the bathroomortoilet by turning off the light.Payattention to thegapunder the door: it is better to plugit with a towel so as not toaccidentallylight up the filmduringdevelopment.Simplyplace the filmat the beginning of the spiral,andthenfill the filminto the tank with a rotatingmotion.Check out the simpleinstructionsonhow to doitright. Most likely, the firstfilmwill be chargedinto a tankwithflour— I do notadvise you to develop a coil,whichisveryimportant to you.Andideally, you canlime an unnecessarycoilfortraining.Afteryoucharge the spiral,placeitin the tankandclose the lidtightly.Then you can develop the film in thelight— the tank is light-tight.
PREPARING THE SOLUTIONEachfilmandeachdeveloperhasits own conditions: the degree of dilution,temperature, and time of development.I'm looking for themin the freeknowledgebase. I seein the tablethatforIlfordHP5+black-and-whitephotographic film,shotat400ISO,and the Rodinal developerwith a dilutiondegree of 1+25, the developmenttime will besixminutes.And the temperature of the finishedsolutionis20degrees.At the bottom of the tank it is writtenhow much ready-made solution you need to havefordeveloping the film.Iusuallyprepare a solutionfor600
milliliters of water,because I haveahandincookingsuch a volume— I already"byeye"collectwater of the right
temperatureandvolume.The more preciselyyouprepare the solution,thehigher the chance to get a guaranteeddevelopmentresult.Practiceshowsthat the watertemperaturecan be measuredwith an accuracyofonedegree,and the volume of the solution can be measured with an accuracyoffive to tenmilliliters of water. It is better to measure the concentrateddeveloperwith an accuracyofonemilliliter. WE SHOWTurn on the stopwatchon the phoneandpour the solutioninto the tank.When you have filled it completely,close the lidon the tankandturnitin your hands,stirring, for abouthalf a minute.After that, it is useful to put it on the tablewithcotton,so that airbubblesseparatefrom the surface of the filmfrom a lightblow.Thenrotate the tank for severalsecondsonceaminute—thisprocess is calledagitation.Ithelps to wash the film with a solutionandimproves the quality of development. WE WASH IT When the time is up,pour the developerinto the sink.Itcanchangecolorandturnpurpleorblue— don'tworry,this is normal.Once the solution is poured out,place the tankunder a stream of coolwater for aboutone to twominutes,pouring out the waterevery20-30seconds. WE FIX IT Afterrinsing the film,pour out the waterandpour in the fixativesolution.Leave the filminit for aboutfiveminutes. It is not necessary to agitate the fixer. The fixer is usuallyreusable,andafter it is useful to drainitbackinto the bottle. WE WASH IT Afterfixing, rinse the filmagainfortwo
minutes,andthenpourdistillateforhalf a minute andmeditate.DRYING The film is driedvertically by attaching it withaclothespintoanyplace(for example,on a chandelieror a showercurtainholder). The filmusuallydries for twohours. It is useful to attachanotherclothespinoranyotherweight to thefreelyhangingendso that the film does notlose its shapeduringdrying.What's nextBlack and whitephotographic film isnegative.Toview the pictures, you need to scan it (orprintthemon an enlarger,which is more difficult). The finishedfilmcan be taken to thelaboratory,whereit will be scanned using professionalequipment.
Conclusion
Ilearned a lot of new things.Inthisproject, I learnedwhenandhow the firstcamerasappeared, the story of the creator of the camera, howthecamera works, how the filmmanifests itself andwhat is needed forthis.
List of literature
1.https://www.google.com/search
2.https://bg.ru/bg/service-shopping/how-to-do/1157-film-developing
3https://diletant.media/articles
4.http://bf-gallery.ru/nisefornyeps
5.https://ru.wikipedia.
Application